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This article is about a type of ancient Greek statuary. For the Greek ultramarathon runner, see Yiannis Kouros.

A kouros (plural kouroi, Ancient Greek κοῦρος) is the modern term given to those representations of male youths dating from the Archaic period in Greece. Such statues are found across the Greek-speaking world. The earliest extant examples may be the two life-sized marble figures from the Ionic sanctuary on the island of Delos¹ dating from the second or third quarter of the seventh century. The canonical form of the kouros persists until the beginning of the classical period, by which time artists had achieve a high degree of anatomical verisimilitude, if not naturalism, as can be observed on such transitional works as the Kritios Boy, ca. 480 BC. These free-standing sculptures were typically marble, but also the form is rendered in wood, bronze and terracotta.

The kouros type appears to have served several functions. It is certain it was used to represent the god Apollo as attested by its depiction on a vase painting in the presence of suppliant². As does the description of the statue of the Pythian Apollo at Samos by Diodoros³ as "Egyptian works, with his arms hanging by his sides and his legs parted". However not all kouroi are images of a deity; many have been discovered in cemeteries where they most likely served as commemorative tombstones of the interred, also the type was used as a memorial for victors in the games (Pausanias describes the statue of Arrhichion, an Olympic pankratiast, as in the kouros scheme⁴), and some kouroi have been found in sanctuaries other than that of Apollo. Indeed some kouroi placed in sanctuaries were not inscribed with the name of the god but with a mortal, for example the 'Delphi Twins' Kleobis and Biton were honoured for their piety with matching kouroi⁵.

Diodoros⁶ asserts that the works of Daidalos had the same shape as older Egyptian statues, and that the kouros known as the Apollo of Samos "resembles Egyptian works". A direct influence between Egyptian monumental sculture (in particular the figure of Horus) and the kouros type has long been conjectured, not least of all because of known trade and cultural relations that had existed since the mid-seventh century. A recent study by Eleanor Guralnick applied stereophotogrammetric measurement and cluster analysis to a number of Greek and Egyptian statues and found the strongest correlation to be between the Second Canon of the 26th Dynasty and the kouroi of the late seventh, early sixth centuries⁷.

The absolute chronology of the kouros form is uncertain; none of the sculptures have secure dates. Further there is a strong homogeneity across the various regional schools: where anatomical innovations were adopted they seem to have spread quickly amongst the different workshops so that "regional distinctions become merged in a common progression"⁸. Consequently the development of the kouros type as we now understand it is based on the relative chronology delineated by Gisela Richter. She distinguishes six groups by their common anatomical features.

Their female counterparts in sculpture are the korai. In addition are a smaller number of seated pairs. Also representations of mythical beasts of the period may evidence the archaic features of the statuary.

Cultural origin and evolution

According to Herodotus,⁹ Psammetichus I (664-610 BC) invited Ionians and Carians to settle in lands provided for them along the Nile and these were the first foreigners to settle in Egypt. It is no coincidence that large marble sculptures began to replace the smaller xoana in Greek temples at about 650.¹⁰ The initial kouroi were created at a time when Greece was under the cultural influence of Egypt. Some features apparently taken from Egyptian sculpture are:

Development

Sounion group

Ca. 615-590 BC. Artistic activity in Attica, Argos, Corinthian colony of Corcyra, Thasos, Naxos Delos, Thera, Samos. New York kouros, Dermys and Kittylos, Delphi Twins, Sounion, the Delos colossus.Tentative date based on allowing enough time for successive stages of kouroi from this period to later ones. Also relation to Nessos amphora. Also NY-Sounion k to Corinthian pyxis p.38.

Conception of form is abstract and geometrical, emphasis on architectural shape and interrelation of parts. Figure displays the four faces of the block, form cubic with details incised, anatomy only partially understood. Harmony and expressive pattern the goal, proportions abnormal. Torso four-sided and flat, back higher than chest, vertebral column straight. Skull undeveloped, flat at back and often on top. Ear carved in one plane, stylized. Tragus knob like, either on cheek or lobe. Antitragus not indicated. Eyes large and flat, canthus not marked, lachrymal caruncle not indicated. Mouth horizontal, lips on same plane, corners of mouth form triangular depressions. Hair arranged in parallel beaded tresses, rarely radiates from vertex. Sterno-mastoids, when marked, indicated by grooves running to sternal notch. No indication of swelling of trapezius on outline of shoulders. Clavicles are flat ridges along whole course of shoulders. Median line sometimes marked by groove from sternal notch to navel. Lower boundary of thorax has shape of pointed arch. Rectus abdominis, three or more transverse divisions above navel. Nevel generally knob in circular groove. Serratus magnus not indicated. Shoulder blades outlined by grooves on surface of back. Erector spinae attachment to posterior part of the iliac crest sometimes indicated by grooves in the lumbar regions. Forearm supinated, palm towards body. Arms often separated from body between armpit and hand. Thumbs large. Vastus internus descends to about same level as vastus externus, shin vertical, malleoli level. Weight evenly distributed on both legs and flanks level.

Orchomenos-Thera group

ca. 590-570 BC. Lull in Attica until second quarter of century, period of Solonic reforms. Activity in Beotia, especially Ptoan sanctuary, early work there probably native ¹². Also Corinth, Actium produces one of best examples of the period Louvre MNB 767, detailing still of grooves and ridges but beginning of of modelling roundness of form, Arcadia, Delphi, Dodona, Trapezia, Delos, Thera, Naxos, Samos, Crete, Miletos, Knidos, Naukratis and Italy.

For absolute chronology compare with vase painting of middle Corinthian 600-575, p62, stolid expression flat skull large eyes and horizontal mouth.

Innovations of this period. Ear still carved in one plane, but less stylised. Eyes not so large and more rounded. Mouth horizontal but no longer always in one plane. Slight protrusions of flanks sometimes prolonged into girdle-like ridge, occasionally marks the anterior spine of the crest. Shoulder blades separate raised planes. Erector spinae sometimes indicated as raised planes. Arms generally joined to body. Depression over great trochanter generally omitted. Shin sometimes curves inwards. Left flank occasionally placed slightly forward.

Tenea-Volomandra group

Ca. 575-550 BC. Ear carved in more than one plane. Roundness of eye indicated henceforth. Lips curve upwards and meet more or less at corners, upper lip protrudes over lower. Construction of neck generalized, sterno-mastoids when indicated marked by slightly modelled shapes. Median line: groove along sternum generally replaced replaced by modelled shapes and only groove along linea alba is marked. Lower boundary of thorax assumes shape of somewhat rounded arch. Slight indication of external oblique bulging over iliac crest. Shoulder blades indicated as modelled shapes. Erector spinae sometimes modelled. Size of thumb normal. Vastus internus descends lower than vastus externus. Shin curves inwards. External malleolus lower and further back than internal one. Little toes slant inwards. Metatarsal bones lightly indicated.

Melos group

C. 555-540 BC. Tragus sometimes assumes natural form. Anterior part of helix which is direct backwards (crus helicus) is often prominent, joining upper end of tragus. Antitragus sometimes tentatively indicated, though wrongly placed. Anterior triangle of neck better understood. Navel generally modelled as a depression. Indication of external oblique buging over iliac crest. Lower boundary of abdomen occaisionaly forms a deep curve. Forearm and arm sometimes correctly semi-pronated; both direct towards body. Arms sometimes arched towards body below the armpit. Big toe projects a little further or same as second toe. Four smaller toes and toe nails curve gently downwards.

Anavysos-Ptoon group

C. 540-520 BC. Proportions normal, forms modelled, spine S-shaped. Head spherical, well-developed. Tragus natural form, antitragus indicated. Hair occaisionally descends as far as nape of neck. Sterno-mastoids when marked indicated by modelled shapes. Their attachment to sternum and clavicles often not indicated, results in continuous hollow groove or run above the clavicle. Attempt to indicate the backward curve of clavicle. Groove along linea alba sometimes continued below the navel. Lower boundary of thorax arch indicated. Flanks, swelling of external well developed. Lower boundary of abdomen assumes hape of small semicircle or deep curve. Erector spinae always indicated as modelled shape. Generally hand and forearm semi-pronated. Hands no longer attached to body but joined by short supports. Metacarpal bones sometimes indicated. Bulge of vastus internus increases. Toes no longer parallel and do not receed along a continuous curve. Toes and nail point upwards. Articulation of joins well rendered. Sometimes flank of advanced leg placed forward and higher than receeding leg.

Ptoon 20 group

C. 520-485 BC. Lachrymal caruncle sometimes indicated. Lips curved upwards only in early examples, upper lip protrudes markedly over lover and lips are well shaped. Hair generally short or rolled up behind, also radiated from point near vertex and carved in wavy strands. Structure of neck correct. Indication of swelling of trapezium on outline of shoulder, more pronounced with time. Clavicles assume s-shape and lose themselves in shoulders. Lower boundary of thorax semicircular arch. Rectus abdominis, number reduced to two, top one incorporated into lower boundary of thorax, small raised plane caused by projection of xiphoid appendage sometimes observable at lower end of sternum. Navel has fold of skin above in most examples. Lower boundary of abdomen assumes shape of semicircle, upper edge of torso with two concave curves becomes regular form. Forearm and hand correctly pronated. Arms sometimes held free from body. Flanks; occasionally at first later regularly, flank and buttock of supporting leg rise in conformity with action.

Purpose

At the end of the sixth century BC, kouroi begin to show more relaxed poses and their hair styles become more typical of mainland Greece. By the seventh century, the earliest period for which full-size sculptures exist in this culture, kouroi had come to serve two purposes. They were presented to temples as votive offerings by prominent Greeks, as is shown by the inscriptions which frequently appear on their plinths. They also were placed in cemeteries to mark the graves of prominent citizens. In cemeteries, kouroi showed the deceased as the Greek ideal of masculinity. In very early times, it is likely that kouroi were thought to possess magical properties, and to be inhabited by the daimon of the gods.

Kouroi, however, were never intended to be representations of individuals. One of the best known kouroi is the grave-marker of Kroisos, an Athenian soldier. The inscription on his statue reads: "Stop and show pity beside the marker of Kroisos, dead, whom once in battle's front rank raging Ares destroyed." The word "marker" (sema) tells us that this is a symbolic representation of Kroisos, not a portrait.

A well-known example is the double kouros of Kleobis and Biton, found at Delphi. These statues date from about 580 BC and are representations of two legendary heroes of Argos in the Peloponnese. Although an inscription identifies them as Kleobis and Biton, they are typical kouroi, embodying the Archaic Peloponnesian virtues of filial piety and physical strength rather than specific persons. Another well-known archaic kouros is the sixth-century Kouros of Melos, which retains archaic frontality in the standardised pose.

The Kritios Boy, a kouros attributed to Kritios from about 490-80 BC (Acropolis Museum, Athens), exemplifies the change from Archaic to Classical sculpture at the time of the First Greco-Persian War; his realistic proportions and details are based on visual experience rather than the schematic ideals of the preceding generation, or mathematically derived ideals, such as the Polyclitean canon established by Polyclitus.

Notes

^ Delos Museum A4085 and A334, See Richter, Kouroi, p.27
^ BM, E336
^ I.98.9, see Richter Kouroi p.1
^ VIII.40.I
^ Delphi, 467, 1524
^ I.97.6 and I.98.9
^ E Guralnick, Proportions of Kouroi, pp.461, AJA, 1978
^ Richter Kouroi, p.5
^ Histories, II.1.54.
^ Richter, A Handbook of Greek Art p.48-9.
^ Marble statue of a kouros (youth)
^ p.59

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